The Ascent of Money

Ascent of Money is indispensable as a foundation for the whys and hows of banking from it's origins and first principles. It's a history book. Anything technical (mathematical finance) is really not going to provide a foundation without the historical why of the instruments creation and use. One you have that, the most efficient way to understand it after would be with Quantlib (https://www.quantlib.org/docs.shtml) There is a lot of middle brow commentary (krugman, piketty, reinhard/rogoff, dalio, taleb, etc) that will be entertaining and philosophical, but only that. The guts of economics (Keynes, Galbraith, Mises/Hayek) are very dense, and provide a very narrow, depth first plunge into something you won't be able to apply well without a more complete education. Functional grasp of (re)insurance, securitization, liquidity, and the bond/debt markets is the best royal road, I"d say.

Ascent of Money - Niall Ferguson will start you from the very beginning, and does cover all the subjects you mentioned. Random walk down wall street is good, but the angle is more “so you want to get into investing?” It won’t go into too much detail of underlying systems like fiat currency.